Martin Luther Freedom Of A Christian And John Calvin

In the late 1400’s through 1500’s, the Christian church not only sought out to reform the material world, but also completely cleanse society in its entirety. Charles V’s decided to divide his empire causing tensions to pull Europe in all different directions. Because of this division, many followers had converted to various competing branches of Protestantism within the Holy Roman empire. The sources, Martin Luther: Freedom of a Christian and John Calvin: Articles Concerning Predestination and The Necessity of Reforming the Church, contained similarities and differences in regards to Church reforms while St. Ignatius of Loyola: A New Kind of Catholicism specifically had slightly differently ideologies in regards to the repentance of sins. All in all, these three models disagreed on many points of the doctrine and church, which created the increase of fractures within Christian Piety. Martin Luther s and Calvin s ideas were viewed as similar because they both agreed that religious authority relied on the Bible, rather than the ideologies of the Pope, but also contained slight differences between the Church and State. Calvin believed that all should serve God in his individual form and Luther later agreed with this idea after confronting Pope Leo X about faith saving sinners, not acts of good deeds. Luther created the idea of predestination, that Calvin was also interested in, and concluded his major doctrine is justification by faith on it’s own. Through this quote, it isShow MoreRelatedThe Colonial Period Essay1337 Words   |  6 Pagespresent society through questioning past beliefs. Martin Luther leads the Protestant Reformation. John Calvin expands on the idea of predestination. The Puritans live strictly by the word of the Bible, and the Quakers inspire many people to join them in their friendly lifestyle. All of these people contribute to our societ y today and brave the face of adversity. Martin Luther, born in 1483, comes from a poor upbringing. Religious as a boy, Martin Luther earns his wages by singing hymns. He later entersRead MoreGovernment And Law In Reformation Theology . The Protestant1105 Words   |  5 PagesGovernment and Law in Reformation Theology The Protestant Reformation’s initiation through Martin Luther’s criticism of the Catholic Church with his Ninety-Five Theses brought about a united front of Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and Martin Luther and their attempts to reform the Catholic Church, all of whom eventually split from the Church and started their own religious movements. As the Reformation movement flourished under each leader, their theological differences eventually split the movementsRead MoreMartin Luther and John Calvin as Religious Leaders of the Reformation607 Words   |  3 PagesMartin Luther and John Calvin as Religious Leaders of the Reformation Martin Luther became an Augustinian Monk in 1505. He spent two years studying Scripture before being ordained as a priest. In 1510, Luther was sent to Rome and was shocked by the spiritual laxity. After finishing his theological doctorate, he became a professor at Wittenberg, in 1515, Luther became the district vicar. Luther began to develop his own theology and in 1516 he felt compelled to protestRead MoreThe Reformation And The Reformation1421 Words   |  6 Pagesin 1517. The Reformation was led by radical critics Martin Luther and John Calvin, who questioned the teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, due to their selling of indulgences and stray from the Bible. The Reformation started in central Europe and spread to encompass most of the continent, during which time people left the Roman Catholic Church and joined a Protestant religion, a religion that is a denomination of the Christian faith. During the Reformation, the Catholic Church wasRead MoreThe Protestant Reformation And The Reformation Essay1379 Words   |  6 PagesProtestant Reformation is considered a significant development in the Christian Church. The Protestant Reformation was an event which occurred within the Catholic Church during the 16th century. This Reformation was prompted by Martin Luther’s ‘95 theses’ which were a list of 95 criticisms towards the church. The Reformation formed another branch of Christianity called Protestantism which is comprised of many different Christian denominations including Anglican, Presbyterian, and Lutheran. The ProtestantRead MoreStudy Bible History And Theology At Northeastern Seminary978 Words   |  4 Pagespreparation for seminary begin in 2005 when I had a desire to become a Christian Counselor for women and children. As a result, I enrolled in a Christian Counseling program offered by the American Association of Christians Counselors. When I completed the program, I discovered that in order to become certified I needed a Master’s degree. Unfortunately, I did not have a college degree so I thought my dream to become a Christian Counselor was just dream. Additionally, I had health issues and I couldRead MoreThe Protestant Reformation And The Reformation916 Words   |  4 Pagesconflicts all over Europe. The principal figure from the Protestant Reformation was Martin Luther. Martin Luther was a German friar, priest, and professor of theology. Luther rejected many teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church so he decided to create his own religion, Lutheranism. Another important figure was John Calvin. John Calvin was a French theologian and pastor. He developed the system of Christian Theology which was then called Calvinism. These two figures made a huge impactRead MoreReligious Reform in the Middle Ages1442 Words   |  6 Pagesthe first Christian humanists to go against the teachings of the Church was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), a priest from Holland, who felt that some of its elements were in need of reform. Erasmus disagreed with the idea that people should hear the teachings of the Bible from a priest, but instead believed that people should read the Bible directly to make their own interpretations. Another significant person who took on the role of bringing Protestantism into Europe was Martin Luther (1483-1546)Read MoreWhat Impact Did The Protestant Reformation900 Words   |  4 Pages1517-1648. The Protestant Reformation was started by Martin Luther (1483-1546), who was a Theologian in the sixteenth century. A Theologian is defined as â€Å"the study of religious faith, practice, and experience; the study of God and God’s relation to the world.† Martin Luther had submitted a note which contained the 95 Theses that was written in Latin on October 31, 1915, and left on the door of the Castle Church also known as Schlosskirche Wittenberg. Luther questioned some of the ways and the gratificationsRead MoreMartin Luther ( 1483-1546 )2808 Words   |  12 PagesMartin Luther (1483-1546) – Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian whose initial concern with the C atholic Church’s sale of indulgences ultimately led to the Protestant Reformation. He was a prolific writer and his theology challenged many of the accepted traditions of the church, perhaps most importantly his doctrine of â€Å"justification by faith,† affirming that human faith and justification are not works of their own hands, but gifts from God. Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) – Philipp Melanchthon

A Green Economic Plan For The Environment Essay - 1837 Words

With the deterioration of numerous environments around the globe, and the increased phenomena of anthropogenic climate change, it is evident that changes must take course and the protection of the environment become a crucial aspect embedded in social, political, and economic change. With this understanding, many nations across the globe have adopted a green economic plan that aims to reduce the impact upon the natural environment, whilst also ensuring economic benefit; however, establishing a strong green economic plan that targets the reduction of impact upon the environment can be a financially difficult process, particularly for nations that do not possess the adequate funding. Considering this, many nations in this position partner up with other nations so that the necessary funding can be fulfilled. Guyana is a sovereign state situated in South America that is known to have exceptionally high rates of deforestation for the past several years. Considering this, Norway has taken on the initiative to provide monetary incentives that will fuel Guyana s green economy on the basis that deforestation rates are reduced. Exploring the GRIF project will provide a unique outlook on specifically how economic investments can promote a green economy, and, subsequently, propose a model that presents a scenario in which the reduction of the global impact upon the natural environment can be achieved. The Guyana REDD+ Investment Fund Various initiatives, such as Reducing EmissionsShow MoreRelatedGreen Growth : A New Concept Of Growth1171 Words   |  5 Pagesincrease of economic, such as the rapid increase in GDP. However, it is clear that the natural resources are limited on Earth, high rate of consuming resources will lead to lacking in the future to sustain society. So, it is important for the world moving into a new stage of economic growth-Green Growth This report is organized as follows: It first provides a conceptual idea of what is green growth as well as its characteristic. 1.1 Definition of Green Growth Green growth, also known as green economyRead MoreManagement Of Information Technology ( Bco6653 )1376 Words   |  6 Pages GREEN it Management of Information Technology (BCO6653)  Abstract: INTRODUCTION LITERATURE REVIEW Academic Literature: Green IT Fundamental: () says that Green IT indicates that information technology should be environmentally rich. In simple words we can say that green it makes an organisation more environmentally efficient. IT basically the design, use and management of the computer systems at any level be it individual or organisation. Green IT is a combination of multiple features such asRead MoreShould The Environmental Protection Agency Proceed With The Clean Power?967 Words   |  4 PagesStates damage on the environment. In 2015, there was the Environmental Protection Agency, which created a clean power plan. President Obama announced the plan, an effort to fight climate change. The plan was to target power plants who use fossil fuels for energy. The use of these fossil fuels would emits carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes to a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect, which gradually causes the planet to warm and its climate to change (Clean Power Plan: Should the EnvironmentalRead MoreOverview of Sustainable Industry in Malaysia.655 Words   |  3 PagesSustainability Energy Development Authority and its represent a total 466% year-on-year growth. The increase of the renewable energy represent years of planning and execution by relevant authorities to regulate and draft policies that suits Malaysian environment. As sustainable industry and climate change are interrelated, often the regulation and policies are overlapped. The Malaysian governement acknowledge the importance of government’s role in reducing climate change, therefore the history of MalaysianRead MoreThe Portland Development Commission Essay724 Words   |  3 Pagesforest area in the size of 35 city blocks. I like how it demonstrate the plan they are using and how it gets the citizens and government to work together. Although, this source is outdated but I would like to use it in my essay since it states that the neighborhood would cut down its net energy and water, while maintaining its connection to the citys sewage system and power network because I would like to know the outcome of the plan; whether they accomplish their goal as reducing of energy and waterRead MoreAugusta Resource Corporation and Their Mining Video Aimed to Support Their Project1356 Words   |  5 PagesIn 2006, a Canadian company called Augusta resource Corporation proposed an initial plan of developing a copper mine in southeast of Arizona. The controvers y started after the company submitted their proposal, the opponents of this plan were mainly Arizona locals, which they believe that this copper mine will affect the local tourism and bring permanent damage to the environment. Therefore, the company Augusta Resource Corporation created this Facebook video demonstrates how this project is goingRead MoreMultinational Corporations And Its Impact On The Environment Essay1351 Words   |  6 PagesDevelopment projects by corporations have been criticized for damaging the environment, even when they are claimed to helping it. Consequently, financing to such projects has been discouraged due to their impact on the environment. For example, in the 1990s the United Nations (U.N.) engaged corporations in sponsorship and collaboration to encourage support for human rights, development projects, and the environment. However, the projects were criticized because the U.N. incorporated organizationsRead MoreInternational Political Market Values An d Subsequent Free Trade Agreements869 Words   |  4 Pagestrade agreements are at the forefront of economic globalization. As the global markets and economic competition intensifies, nations move towards trade liberalization. International trade agreements by extension of economic globalization are more often prioritized before environmental agreements. In fact it is evident that environmental policy is rarely prioritized over economic growth. The neo-liberal market ideals have encouraged the development of economic globalization and therefore sustain theRead MoreBuilding Design : Green Buildings1120 Words   |  5 PagesGreen Buildings As Goldman Environmental Prize winner Terry Swearingen stated, â€Å"we are living on this planet as if we had another one to go to.† In today’s society, the architectural process is beginning to exponentially grow due to the vast need of building construction for evolving communities. However, many architects are massively constructing without truly realizing the side effects of building architecture to the economy or environment. A building plan should not be viewed solely on the physicalRead MoreUnique Problems Associated with Delivering Health Care to an Indigent Population1371 Words   |  5 Pagesthe case, there were many unique problems associates with delivering health care to the indigent population. First, communication was an issue plaguing all parties involved. Difficulty in regards to understanding overall objectives and health care plans made operations inefficient and costly. Massive errors resulted from communication issues that ultimately hindered the access and quality of health care to the indigent population. Communication is the foundation of delivering health care. Everyone

Directors Wholly Owned Subsidiary Companies-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Whether Statutory And Equitable Duties Are Breached By Jack, Alice And Francis Towards The Superdry Stores Ltd? Answer: Introducation Generally, company is bound by only those contracts which are signed by the person authorized by the company. In number of cases, authority of the person is denied by the company for ignoring its obligation under the contract. Because of these issues it becomes important for outsiders to confirm the authority of the person who is acting on behalf of the company and also the compilation regarding internal rules of the company before entering into any transaction with the company. However, those companies which have more than one or two directors imposed the management power not to the single director but to the board collectively for the purpose of managing the affairs of the company and entering into contract with outsiders. These powers are imposed either through the constitution of the company or replaceable rules. In other words, complete management power does not imposed in single director. Board of directors of the company has power to pass resolution for the purpose of entering into contract on behalf of the company, but it must be noted that these powers are subject to some restrictions also. In other words, board has power to enter into contract but some matters are strictly reserved for shareholders approval. It must be noted that this concept of law is not fair because it make the outsiders liable to check whether company and authorized person complied with all the necessary requirements or not. Therefore, it becomes necessary for law to protect the interest of outsiders. Common law which protects the outsiders interest is introduced for balancing the competing policy issues. Two interests are balanced through this law, and both the interests are stated below: First interest is related to the convenience of business which can be affected outsiders are forced to investigate the internal regulations of the company for the purpose of checking the actual authority of the person acting on behalf of the company. Second interest is related to the protection of the shareholders and creditors interest in the company. according to the Mason CJ, while applying the first interest it is necessary to prevent over extensive application of the first interest for the purpose of preventing the facility of the fraud and unjust favor to those who deal with the companies at the cost of interest of creditors and shareholders. Common law introduced doctrine of indoor management and section 128 and 129 of the Corporation Act 2001 for the purpose of protecting the interest of the outsiders while dealing with the company (Krawitz, 2002). High Court of Australia approved the rule of Indoor Management in case of Albert Gardens (Manly) Ltd v. Mercantile Credits Ltd, and make the comment on this matter in case Northside Developments Pty Ltd v. Registrar-General. Both the cases are considered as important reference for understanding the doctrine of Indoor management. This doctrine is introduced for those outsiders who are dealing with the company in good faith and they do not have any sufficient reason to believe that person is not authorized to act on behalf of the company and management fails to compile with the internal rules of the company. Outsider who is dealing with the company in good faith is not under obligation to confirm whether person complied with all the rules and regulations or not. Therefore, it is the right of outsider to make assumption that person acting on behalf of the company is duly authorized by the company and compiled with all the rules and regulations of the company. This assumption can only be made regarding the internal matters of the company. If outsider wants protection under doctrine of indoor management then subject matter must be related to the internal management of the company (ILO, 2014). Following things can be assumed by the outsider while dealing with the company: There is no procedural defect on the part of the company while appointing the companys director. Resolution passed in the board meeting fulfills all the necessary requirements of the company, and meeting held as per the norms of the company and constitution. Any required approval either board or member has been obtained. This doctrine is applicable only in those case in which outsider is involved, and it provides guidance to the person who is dealing with the company. However, this doctrine is not applicable on public corporation only but it also applied on private corporations also. This rule has some exceptions also, which means in some situations this rule is not applicable and these situations are actual knowledge, doctrine of Constructive notice, forgery, and due inquiry. This can be understood through case law Howard v Patent Ivory Manufacturing Co [1888] 38 Ch. D. 156. In this case, Court stated that outsider who are dealing with the company cannot rely on the doctrine of indoor management if such outsider has knowledge that person was not authorized on behalf of the company or does not compiled with the internal requirements of the company. In this directors borrow money from themselves by passing the resolution in the board meeting for the purpose of issuing debentures in lieu of those borrowings under common seal of the company. Court reject the right of directors to recover the money and company was not bound with the borrowings because directors know that approval from members were not taken. Application: In this case, Bob signed the contract with Computer Supplies Pty Ltd for the purpose of buying 10 computers for $8000, and Bob also signed contract of $ 50000 with Plastica Pty Ltd. Both the contracts are signed on behalf of the SSA. Constitution of the SSA states that any contract upto $10000 cannot bind the company unless such contract is approved by the resolution passed by board and must be signed by at least two directors. Part a- contract signed by Bob on behalf of SSA with Computer Supplies Pty Ltd is below the $10000, and as per the constitution any contract below $10000 does not require any approval from board. Therefore, contract signed by Bob with Computer Supplies Pty Ltd is enforceable in nature and binding on the company. Part b- contract signed by Bob on behalf of SSA with Plastica Pty Ltd is above the $ 10000, and for this purpose Bob fails to take approval from the board as peer the constitution of the company. Contract is enforceable in nature because doctrine of indoor management is applicable in this case. This doctrine allowed the outsiders to make assumption that person acting on behalf of the company is duly authorized by the company and compiled with all the internal rules and regulations of the company. Rule of Indoor management was introduced in case law Royal British Bank v. Turquand. This case was considered as landmark case in the field of doctrine of indoor management. In this Court decided that power was imposed in the outsiders to make assumption that company compiled with all the internal rules and regulations. In this case, companys directors take borrowing from the bank, but as per the requirement of the constitution directors fails to take approval from the members in general meeting. After that company refuse to make payment on ground that director of the company fails to fulfill the internal requirement of the company because of which company was not liable to made payment to the bank. This argument of the company was rejected by the Court, and judge held that bank has right to assume that company fulfill all the internal requirements and borrowing taken by company were authorized by the members. This decision of the Court was named as rule of Turquands case and later it was named as the Indoor management rule (Cain, 1989). In the present case also plastic has right to assume that Bob is duly authorized by the company and compiled with all the internal requirements. Usually, role of the directors of the company is to oversee the companys management, and these directors handle the companys management on behalf of the shareholders because in actual shareholders of the company are the actual owners of the company. The power imposed under directors of the company to manage the company is provided through companys constitution, article, and by law. In case of wholly-owned subsidiary, generally directors of the parent company are not liable for the management of the subsidiary company, but in some cases directors of the parent company are liable towards the subsidiary company also. Therefore, it becomes important for the directors of the parent company to know that they also own statutory and equitable duties towards the subsidiary company also. However, directors of the parent company owned this duty if they are acting as shadow director of the subsidiary company. Term shadow director is introduced in section 9 of the act, and according to section 9 if board of the subsidiary company act as per the directions of the director of parent company then such director is known as the shadow director. Section further states that if person is not duly appointed as director then also such marketing is considered as shadow director if management is bound to act as per the directions of such person (GIA, 2014). It must be noted that shadow director is also liable to follow statutory and equitable duties as subject to Corporation Act 2001. Following are the statutory duties Duty under section 180, to exercise due care and diligence. This section states that director must act with due care and diligence while performing management function. This duty is mainly considered as fiduciary duty of the director which mainly deals with the business judgment and states that director must act in good faith and in the best interest of the company while taking any decision. This can be understood through case law ASIC v Vines. In this case, Mr. Vine held liable for breach their duty under section 180 of the Act by providing misleading and inadequate material information to the bard of the company. Duty under section 181 to perform their functions and discharge their duties with good faith and in the best interest of the company. This duty imposed responsibility on director to act for the benefit of the company. It must be noted that non-compliance of section 180 and 181 can result in severe civil and criminal consequences stated under section 1317E of the Act. This section state, directors of the company who breaches above stated sections related to statutory duty are held liable by the Court and for this purpose Court made declaration of contravention. If this declaration is made by the Court then ASIC can apply for below stated remedies against the directors: Remedy under section 1317G related to pecuniary penalty order. Remedy under section 206 by disqualifying the director from managing the company (Corporation Act, 2001). ASIC v Adler can be the case which helps in understanding the breach of director duty and consequences of this breach. In this case, directors of the company breached statutory duties under the Corporation Act 2001. Directors of the company were held liable for breach section 180, 181, and 182 of the Act. In the present case, all three directors of the parent company that are Jack, Alice and Francis can be considered as shadow director of the Superdry stores Ltd, because board of the Superdry Stores Ltd is bound to act as per the directions of these three directors. Therefore, all three directors of the parent company that are Jack, Alice and Francis own statutory duty towards the Superdry stores Ltd. This can be understood through case law Dairy Containers Ltd v NZI Bank Ltd [1995] 2 NZLR 30. In this case, Court held that parent company was not liable towards the wholly-owned subsidiary because board of the subsidiary was not bound to act as per the directions of the holding company. As shadow director of the Superdry Stores, Jack, Alice and Francis breach following statutory duties: Shadow directors breach duty under section 180 of the Act by failing to consider the best interest of the company while taking the business judgment. They fail to provide personal guarantee for the amount borrowed by Holdings and manufacturers. Directors while taking the business judgment fail to perform their duties with due care and diligence because for protecting themselves against personal liability they provide the guarantee of superdry stores. Directors also breach their duties under section 181 of the Act by failing to perform their functions and exercise their duty in the good faith and in best interest of the company. Directors give preference to their personal interest instead of the interest of the company. Following are the consequences which can be faced by the Jack, Alice, and Francis: Under section 1317E, Court can make declaration of contravention against the three directors and make disqualification order under section 206 of the Act and pecuniary penalty order under section 1317G of the Act. All three directors are the shadow directors of the Superdry stores and they breach their duties under section 180 and 181 of the Act. References: Albert Gardens (Manly) Pty Ltd v Mercantile Credits Ltd, [1973] HCA 60; 131 CLR 60. Asic v Adler and 4 Ors [2002] business-law (14 March 2002). ASIC v Vines [2005] NSWSC 738. Cain, T. (1989). The Rule in British Bank v Turquand in 1989. Viewed at: https://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015context=blr. Accessed on 18th September 2017. Corporation Act 2001- Section 128. Corporation Act 2001- Section 129. Corporation Act 2001- Section 1317E. Corporation Act 2001- Section 1317G. Corporation Act 2001- Section 180. Corporation Act 2001- Section 181. Corporation Act 2001- Section 206. Dairy Containers Ltd v NZI Bank Ltd [1995] 2 NZLR 30. GIA, (2014). Guidelines for Directors of wholly-owned subsidiary companies. Viewed at: https://www.governanceinstitute.com.au/media/656514/govinst_guidelines_whollyownedsubsidiary_2014.pdf. Accessed on 18th September 2017. Howard v Patent Ivory Manufacturing Co [1888] 38 Ch. D. 156. ILO, (2014). The 'indoor management rule' explained. Viewed at: https://www.internationallawoffice.com/Newsletters/Litigation/Canada/Dentons/The-indoor-management-rule-explained. Accessed on 18th September 2017. Krawitz, A. (2002). Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. Viewed at: https://www5.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MurUEJL/2002/22.html#INTRODUCTION_T. Accessed on 16th September 2017. Royal British Bank v Turquand(1856) 6 EB 327.

Speech Critique-Jfk Innagrual Address free essay sample

President John F Kennedys Inaugural Address, given on January 20, 1961 at the Capitol, was undoubtedly one of the best inaugural speeches ever given. This speech was intended to be heard by all of the citizens of the US, and with over 20,000 in attendance, and many more watching at home on television, he reached much of his targeted audience. I believe he used this speech to inform the citizens of the United States about what he planned to do for the country while in office, as well as to motivate the citizens to come together and work toward a goal of peace and liberty, which is what he hoped to achieve.The speech was very well organized. It seemed to have a flow to it and move easily from one point to the next. He seemed to have prepared a great deal for this speech and it is very evident in its presentation. We will write a custom essay sample on Speech Critique-Jfk Innagrual Address or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page His words were also chosen well for the audience he was addressing. Whether it was a farmer with no education listening or one of his own colleagues, they could easily understand what was being said. In his inaugural address Kennedy list ideals of liberty, abolition of poverty, and peace throughout all nations. The opening of the speech, I feel he is trying to bring a sense of unity, between one nation, and not two political parties, grabbing everyones attention. He appeals to all the citizens in the nation and not Just those of his party. The body of the speech was very focused and It didnt Jump from one subject to the next. It begins by remembering our forefathers and recognizing that times have changed since then. He goes on to saying that we will stand behind any friend and against any foe and proceeds to address other nations in the world.He seems to want to end war, have peace with everyone, and help lift up those In need. The speech did contain some effective metaphors such as, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger, the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans, and casting off the chains of poverty. The closing of the speech Is a call to action, reminding every American that what happens to their nation Is In their hands. Kennedys Ideals wont be achieved in his term or his lifetime, but It Is the citizens duty to press towards achieving thoseIdeals for future generations. To me, the closing wasnt very memorable, however the line preceding the closing was the most memorable, so that weighed out the closing In my mind. L believe the delivery of this speech was very effective. He seems to believe In the things he Is saying, therefore making everyone else believe them as well. He seemed to be very comfortable during the speech, he made eye contact with the audience, he used hand gestures when speaking a little, but they were effective and not overwhelming. HIS vocals were very easy to hear and he spoke at a very teddy pace.There were some parts of the speech where his voice grew louder, but this only made the speech more effective. He made many dramatic pauses at appropriate times during the speech, when he had completed one Idea and was moving on to something else. The speech was relatively easy for me to understand. I actually felt a little moved by the speech. He believed so strongly In what he believed and what he wanted his nation to achieve you couldnt help but to be Impressed. I enjoyed watching this speech and I believe I would enjoy hearing more from this beaker.Speech Critique-Jeff Inaugural Address By laryngeal nation and not Just those of his party. The body of the speech was very focused and it help lift up those in need. The speech did contain some effective metaphors such as, poverty. The closing of the speech is a call to action, reminding every American that what happens to their nation is in their hands. Kennedys ideals wont be achieved in his term or his lifetime, but it is the citizens duty to press towards achieving those ideals for future generations.To me, the closing wasnt very memorable, however the in my mind. believe the delivery of this speech was very effective. He seems to believe in the things he is saying, therefore making everyone else believe them as and not overwhelming. His vocals were very easy to hear and he spoke at a very appropriate times during the speech, when he had completed one idea and was actually felt a little moved by the speech. He believed so strongly in what he believed and what he wanted his nation to achieve you couldnt help but to be impressed.

Euphemisms in politics essays

Euphemisms in politics essays Word choice in politics is always a contentious issue. In the case similar to prop 209, proposition a proponents of the bill are accused of using loaded and misleading terminology according to some harsh critics. I do not happen to side with the opponents of this bill in this situation. I adamantly oppose affirmative action and believe people should be promoted and hired based on experience and performance not some predetermined racially equal composition. In Houston it only applies to publicly funded organizations and institutions yet it still perpetuates the wrong message. That message is that we treat different races with different sets of rules. Affirmative action in certain circumstances has left the recipients of the jobs feeling a sense of charity and a certain undermining of the legitimacy of the position. In fact proposition 209 was drafted by an African American who shared similar sentiments toward the issue. The word choice utilized by the authors of this proposition poses no ambiguity or confusion to me. Propositions surrounding such an issue are heavily covered in mass media and any competent and informed voter should be able to decipher the objective of the proposition. A more detailed description alluding to the elimination of the employment for minority classes may be a bit more truthful but like Orwell said euphemisms just sound better in politics. Politicians generally do not cater to the apathetic masses because they infrequently vote. But when they vote they do deserve the right to not be confused throughout the process. This is a tricky debate but I have to side with the initial authors of the proposition in their word choice because in actuality that is the state of equality that Houston will return to in the event that affirmative action policies are repealed. If voters are too complacent to make that connection then that is there tough luck. Euphemis ...

Using the Spanish Auxiliary Verb Haber for the Perfect Tenses

Using the Spanish Auxiliary Verb Haber for the Perfect Tenses Just by learning the conjugation of one verb, you can vastly increase the verb tenses and forms you have available in Spanish. It may come as no surprise that the verb is haber, which is translated as the auxiliary verb to have. As an auxiliary verb, haber in Spanish and to have in English are used to form the perfect tenses. Perfect Tenses Used for Completed Actions No, they arent called the perfect tenses because theyre better than the others. But one meaning of perfect, one we dont see very often today outside of literature, is complete. The perfect verb tenses, then, refer to completed actions (although they arent the only way of referring to completed actions). Contrast two ways of referring to something that happened in the past: He salido (I have left) and estaba saliendo (I was leaving). In the first instance, it is clear that the act described by the verb is completed; its something that was over at a specific time. But in the second case, there is no indication when the departure was completed; in fact, the act of leaving still could be occurring. In both English and Spanish, the perfect tenses are formed by using a form of the verb haber or to have followed by the past participle (el participio in Spanish). In English, the participle typically is formed by adding -ed to verbs; the Spanish participle, which has origins related to the English participle, typically is formed by using the ending of -ado for -ar verbs and -ido for -er and -ir verbs. Numerous irregular forms, such as seen and visto, exist in both languages. Types of Perfect Tenses The tense of the resulting verb depends on which tense of haber is used. Use the present tense of haber to create the present perfect tense, the future tense to create the future perfect tense, and so on. Here are examples of the various tenses using haber salido (to have left) in the first-person singular and unconjugated forms. Present perfect indicative: He salido. I have left.Past perfect indicative (pluperfect): Habà ­a salido. I had left.Preterite perfect indicative: Hube salido. I had left.Future perfect indicative: Habrà © salido. I will have left.Conditional perfect indicative: Habrà ­a salido. I would have left.Present perfect subjunctive: (que) haya salido. (that) I have left.Past perfect subjunctive: (que) hubiera salido. (that) I had left.Perfect infinitive: haber salido (to have left)Perfect gerund: habiendo salido (having left) Note that the preterite perfect indicative tense isnt used much in speech or modern writing. Youre most likely to find it in literature. Note also that when standing alone, the subjunctive forms are indistinguishable in English from the indicative forms. In Spanish, the structure of the sentence, not how the verb is translated into English, will determine when the subjunctive is used. See the lessons on the subjunctive mood for more information on this verb mood. Sample Sentences Using the Perfect Tenses Here are some more involved sample sentences that you can examine to see how the perfect tenses are used. You will notice that they generally are used like the same tenses in English. He comprado un coche nuevo pero no puedo manejarlo. (I have bought a new car but I cant drive it. Present perfect indicative.)El traficante de armas no habà ­a leà ­do a Shakespeare. (The arms trafficker had not read Shakespeare. Past perfect indicative)Si yo hubiera hecho esa pelà ­cula  ¡los crà ­ticos me habrà ­an comido vivo! (If I had made that film, the critics would have eaten me alive! Past perfect subjunctive.)Hoy estoy aquà ­; maà ±ana me habrà © ido. (I am here today; tomorrow I will have gone. Future perfect.)No creo que hayan ganado los Rams. (I dont believe the Rams have won. Present perfect subjunctive.)Querà ­amos que hubieran comido. We wanted them to have eaten. Past perfect subjunctive.)Para morirse bien es importante haber vivido bien. (In order die well it is important to have lived well. Perfect infinitive.)Habiendo visto Bogot en pantalla cientos de veces, creo que nada va a sorprenderme. (Having seen Bogota on a screen hundreds of times, I think not hing is going to surprise me. Perfect gerund.) Key Takeaways Haber is an common auxiliary verb in Spanish that functions as the equivalent of the English have as an auxiliary verb.Haber forms the perfect tenses, which are used similar to the perfect tenses of English and indicate that an action has or will be completed.Perfect tenses can be used in Spanish for the past, present, and future in both the indicative and subjunctive moods.

Research Methodologies in Education and professional practice Paper

Methodologies in Education and professional practice - Research Paper Example In practice however, not all children are able to fully develop fluency in the settlement language. While there is growing evidence of the advantages for pre-school education in immigrant children, the enrollment rate remains relatively low. Socio-economic status and financial costs are likely to be the strongest reasons for this occurrence. All of these data reveal the important role of education in the integration and inclusion of immigrant children and families. The school must take on a proactive role in providing support for immigrant children. The research study that will be undertaken was borne out of this perspective. It aims to explore the impact of migration on family, childhood and education institutions in London as reflected in the challenges and difficulties of adaptation in the school setting. It also hopes to determine possible solutions to these challenges and difficulties. The study aims to answer three main questions: This study is of particular relevance to me personally and professionally. I am a teacher assistant, working through an agency, in different schools in London. My professional goals include becoming a foundation stage teacher and this area of research will continue to enhance my knowledge and skills in dealing with immigrant children. My daily interactions with immigrant students allowed me to observe the challenges and difficulties they encounter as an effect of the family transition and adapting to new culture and environment. Although, there are a number of those who successfully integrate into the new educational conditions, there are those whose academic performances fall far below the average. My interactions with parents, teachers and school administrators led me to hypothesise that certain factors (i.e. family and school environment) promote successful adaptation to the school setting. I have observed

Coastal Development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Coastal Development - Assignment Example Currently, plans are underway in finding the best way of mitigating the effects of Hurricane Sandy, which is expected to hit the coastline in the near future (Hutchins and Augenstein, 2012). Although controversies have marred the proposed new construction measures at the New Jersey shore-front, the only way to protect the communities living near the shoreline is to establish new construction requirements to ensure that structures built near the shoreline are strong enough and capable of withstanding heavy storms. The devastation caused by Hurricane Sandy confirmed that the existing building codes cannot solve flooding and elevation problems witnessed whenever a storm hits New Jersey coastline. Therefore, to mitigate future damage that may be caused by heavy storms, the property owners at the New Jersey coastline will be required to elevate their buildings above the base flooding elevations (BFE). The flood elevation requirement issued by Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which is effective from October 2013, requires that properties built in the coastlines, which are prone to storms should be built above the flood elevation threshold (Foster, 2014). Building properties above the BFE will ensure that the flooding does not reach the properties in case of a storm like the Hurricane Sandy. Since storms are accompanied by heavy winds, contractors and property owners at New Jersey coastlines will be required to build structures that are capable of withstanding high winds. In this regard, the contractors will be required to ensure that properties have wind-rated roof covers capable of withstanding strong winds. Additionally, the contractors will also be required to ensure that adequate protections of openings, such as doors and windows are created to protect properties from strong wind pressure and windborne debris. Where necessary,

Electromagnetic research Essay Example for Free

Electromagnetic research Essay We can relate the density to the scattering of radiation in the X-ray region by using the mass attenuation coefficient,  µ/? , and the mass energy-absorption coefficient,  µen/?. In the X-ray region (10-100 KeV), we will find that as the electron density increases, the x-ray signal also increases1. X-ray scattering is considered to be due to the electron density of the atoms in a sample2. J. J. Thomson derived a formula relating the intensity of coherent scattering from a particle. If the incident radiation is not polarized, then his relation takes the form: I(2? ) = Io [(e4)/(r2 m2 c4)] [(1 + cos2 2? )/2] where e is the charge of the particle, r is the distance from the â€Å"scatterer†, m is the mass of the â€Å"scatterer†, c is the velocity of light, and [(1 + cos22? )/2] represents the partial polarization of the scattered photon. An electron is 2000 times lighter than a proton. Most nuclei are made up of many nucleons that have an even greater mass than the mass of a proton. Because the scattered intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the mass of the particle emitting the X-ray photon, scattering of X rays from the nucleus is considered negligible compared to the scattering from the electrons of an atoms. We can conclude that X-ray scattering is due to the density of the electron. The probability for coherent scattering decreases with increasing photon energy and increases with increasing atomic number (increasing number of interfering electrons). As a fraction of the total mass attenuation coefficient, ? coh/? is maximal at atomic numbers around Z=10 and photon energies in the interval 30-50 keV. At higher atomic numbers, the relative fraction decreases due to the strong increase of photoelectric absorption with increasing atomic number3. In silicon, for example, the relative probability for coherent scattering is 14% at 50 keV. Let us refer to table 1, where the densities of elements could be found, and figures 2. 1, 2. 3 and 2. 4, the Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation by Gold, Silicon, and Iron respectively. The density of silicon is 2. 330, iron is 7. 874 and gold is 19. 32. In the graphs, as the radiation increases we will notice that the absorption decreases. For gold, this will continue until it reaches 200 eV where a discontinuity takes place. In terms of the densities of the elements, as the density of the element decreases, the coherent scattering also decreases. For example, gold, which has an atomic number of 79, contains a higher electron density than an element such as silicon and iron (of lower atomic number 14 and 26 respectively); therefore the photon-absorption processes are stronger (higher  µ) making gold suitable as a radiation-shielding material. However, the decrease in ( µ) with increasing photon energy (below 1 MeV) means that relatively thick sheets are needed to absorb hard (short-wavelength) x-rays or gamma -rays, compared to soft (long-wavelength) x-rays for example. Photon absorption in the visible region of the spectrum depends on the atomic arrangement of the atoms and their bonding. Pure silicon (Si) is strongly absorbing but silicon combined with oxygen is transparent. For the energetic photons in the x-ray regime, photon absorption is much easier to predict and is independent of the details of atomic arrangement. It depends primarily on the electron concentration per unit volume. Since the concentration of atoms per unit volume only differ by factors of 2 or 3 from each other, the electron concentration in two materials can be estimated from the atomic number, Z. Gold (Z=79) absorbs x-rays much more efficiently than silicon (Z=14) or iron (Z=26). X-ray absorption does depend on the energy of the x-rays and decreases with increasing x-ray energy, E. Absorption decreases nearly proportional to the cube of the energy (i. e. absorption proportional to (1/E3). The eventual rise in  µ indicates that a third process occurs at high photon energy; this is pair production, in which a pair of elementary particles (a particle and its antiparticle of the same mass but opposite electrostatic charge) is created from the energy (hf) of the original photon4. In this case, the two particles are an electron and an anti-electron (more commonly known as a positron, whose rest mass m0 is the same as that of an electron but whose charge is +e). Pair production can be represented by an equation, which represents the conservation of total energy (or mass-energy): hf = 2(m0 c2) + K(-e) + K(+e) Here, (m0 c2) = 0. 511 MeV is the rest energy of an electron, which is equal to that of the positron, so the factor of 2 represents the fact that two particles of identical rest mass are created. K(-e) and K(+e) represent the kinetic energy of the electron and positron, immediately after their creation. If the photon energy were exactly 2m0c2 = 1. 02 MeV, the two particles would be created at rest (with zero kinetic energy) and this would be an example of the complete conversion of energy into mass. For photon energies below 2m0c2, the process cannot occur; in other words, 1. 02 MeV is the threshold energy for pair production. For photon energies above the threshold, a photon has more than enough energy to create a particle pair and the surplus energy appears as kinetic energy of the two particles. BIBLIOGRAPHY Giacovazzo, Carmelo. Crystallography. Retrieved 9 June 2008, http://xrayweb. chem. ou. edu/notes/crystallography. html. McAlister, B. C. and Grady, B. P. The Use of Monte-Carlo Simulations to Calculate Small-Angle Scattering Patterns. Macromolecular Symposia, 2003. The American Physical Society. X-Ray Radiation from Non-linear Thomson Scattering. Vol. 91, No. 19, 13 November 2003. Retrieved 9 June 2008, http://www. eecs. umich. edu/USL-HFS/TaPhouc_prl_03. pdf. Weidner, R. T. and Sells, R. L. Pair Production and Annihilation. Retrieved 9 June 2008, http://physics. pdx. edu/~egertonr/ph311-12/pair-pa. htm.

John Stuart Mill’s Education Essays -- John Stuart Mill Education Essa

John Stuart Mill’s Education John Stuart Mill’s education was intense at all times, but at different stages in his life he learned different things and in different ways. Though his education was unique by all accounts, it embodied many virtues that modern educational systems strive to include. These include: close parent involvement and one-on-one work between students and teachers; exposure to intellectual role models; emphasis on independent thought, logic, and pursuing curiosities; being held to high standards for achievement; being free from invidious comparisons to peers; and learning the value of seeking out peers for intellectual support and stimulation. He also learned, during personal struggles to understand his relationship with his father and to rediscover passion for life after his mental crisis, that the responsibility for his education and his happiness ultimately lay with himself. Most stunning in his account is what he learns about his father during his process of evaluating the way his father educated him, judging his father’s ideas and abilities, and navigating his relationship with his father over time. During his early childhood Mill’s father tutored him in classical languages and history through structured lessons overseen by his father. His father’s patience encouraged him to ask questions and made him understand that his education was a priority. In retrospect he described his early education as an example of how much can be accomplished in a period of life that is generally wasted. Though he was reading Greek by age three, he attributes his achievements not to his own genius but to his learning environment. While the modern reader is inclined to disbelieve this modest assertion, his unique up... ...his education at different stages of his life, but I think I presented it here much as I read it – which is to say, I’m more inclined to praise Mill’s education than my professor and classmates are. I hope I’ve done a good job of explaining why I think his early education prepared him for everything, even his mental crisis, because I consider that personal struggle a vital part of his education. Learning about oneself and having to provide one’s own meaning for life is an important part of education, and the foundation of logical thought, facing and meeting challenges, and persevering with tough tasks, helped Mill through his mental crisis. I still really like Mill, and though I’m obviously no where near the extreme of his life, I identify to some extent with the way he thinks, the way he was raised, and the personal struggles he’s had to work through on his own.

Racial Diversity In Society Worksheet Essay

Select 1 racial group from the list below: African American Write a 150- to 300-word summary of the economic, social, and political standings of that group. Use additional resources if necessary, from the University Library or your textbooks. Provide citations for all the sources you use. There are gaps between incomes when comparing all racial groups. The group that I chose to study is African Americans. According to our text book, there is a significant gap between the incomes of the Black and White households (Schaefer). In 2009, the median income of Black households was $32,584. This is much lower than that of the White households holding at $54,461. Household incomes for African Americans have been gradually rising and can be seen in the median household income for the year 2013, $41,142, according to the tables provided in MySocLab Social Explorer Map: Income Inequality by Race (). There is also a low possibility of African Americans owning a home because of the lower income, but also due to discriminatory lending practices (Schaefer). Employment is another area that is held lower for African Americans. The unemployment rates have been high since the 1940s. The unemployment rate for Black males aged 16-24was 35 % during the height of the recession; this is very high because the national unemployment rate was this high during the Great depression. The social standings for this group, African American, is also much lower than Whites. There is a 39.2% rate for Black families with two parents and a 49.7% rate for those  families that are only maintained by the mother (Schaefer, Figure 8.4). From a political standing, even though Barak Obama has entered and been in the White House, African Americans still have not received an equal share of the political percentages. Schaefer, Richard T. Racial and Ethnic Groups. 13th ed. N.p.: Merril Prentice Hall, n.d. Print. Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. Part II Answer the following in 50 to 150 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. What is racism? In what ways does racism affect diversity? Racism is the belief and opinion that people form based on the characteristics, stereotypes, and attributes that people have or belong to based on the racial group that the person is categorized in. Racism is also the belief that one race is superior to others. Racism can affect diversity in specific ways. If racism is present, it can prevent diversity in an area because of the way that other races are treated. There could be laws made, such as segregation, that keep diversity from occurring. How do racial groups interact in contemporary America? Are interactions positive, negative, or neutral? Support your response using proper citations. Racial groups are much more interactive than before. In contemporary America, schools are diverse. The period of segregation of Blacks and Whites is not present. The case of Brown V. Board of Education in 1954 was a milestone for diversity and racism. This helped by ending segregation in schools and exposing students to other cultures and races. Although there is still racism in the United States, the level of racism is not as high and diversity is much higher. I would say that the interactions are more neutral because of the fact that there is still racism in America. Another way that racial groups interact is within the workplace. There are also  interracial relationships between different races that had before been never thought of as happening. Are there existing social inequities based on race? Why or why not? There are still existing social inequalities based on race today. There may not be as many as in history, but they still exist. These social inequalities based on race are seen in the workplace, admissions in schools (whether the minority or majority), and in politics. There are some racial groups that may be passed up for on a job opportunities because they may not be â€Å"viewed† as what fits for that position. There is also a discussion that minorities are given more of an opportunity when being admitted into colleges, while passing up on those that may be more qualified; this is the same for the workplace. In politics, we do see that we have our first African American President, but there is still a ways to go before all racial groups are completely equal. What do you believe to be the causes of racial prejudice and discrimination in today’s society? I believe that the causes of racial prejudice and discrimination in today’s society has to do with the way children are being raised and the opinions that people form based on stereotypes that have been passed down for generations. There are people that still have racist views of other racial groups, and they may or may not teach their children or grandchildren to have the same views. There are many people that are much more open minded and accepting of other views and racial groups; but there are still those that are closed minded and view their group as the superior one.

Black Death and Middle English Word

Why does Chaucer dwell more on the pardoner's love of money than on any other aspect of his character? He was not supposed to have worldly procession he is supposed to be a man of God but does not live the life style 2. Imagine that the pardoner where alive today. What might he do for a living, and how would that profession reflect his character?Anointing oil, Bibles, Tapes cad's of Preaching he might sell these things. He's money hungry that is his goal. WORDS TO OWN Avarice 1 . From the old French word meaning â€Å"to crave† Abominable 2. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"Inhuman† Sauntered 3. From the Latin word meaning ‘to loosen† Carouses 4. From the middle French word meaning â€Å"to drink completely† Covetous 5. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"to desire† Blasphemy 6. From the Greek word meaning â€Å"to speak evil of† Pallor 7. From the Latin Absolution 8.From the Middle English word meaning â€Å"to muse or meditate† S uperfluity 9. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"to overflow' Transcend 10. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"to climb across† Re-write 5 sentences above in your own words Avarice 1 . From the old French word meaning â€Å"to desire† Abominable 2. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"godly' Sauntered 3. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"to walk gaily' Carouses 4. From the middle French word meaning â€Å"drunken† Covetous 5. From the Latin word meaning â€Å"to want† After Reading Questions 1 .What events prompt the three rioters to seek Death? Set out to find Death after becoming drunk at a bar. Their intoxication makes them believe that they can find and kill death itself. 2. What way is the rioter's discovery at the old tree unexpected? They find gold coins and excited about their newly covered treasure, subsequently forget about Death 3. Describe the events that directly lead to their deaths. The three men draw straws to see who among them should fetch wine and food while the other two wait under the tree.The youngest of the three men drew the shortest straw. The two men who stay behind secretly plot to kill the other one when he returns, while the one who leaves for the town poisons some of the wine with rat poison. When he returns with the food and drink, the other two kill him and drink the poisoned wine ? also dying (and finding Death) 4. Where you able to correctly anticipate everything? No, I was surprised by how some events developed. 5. What theme about corruption do you think Chaucer conveys through the selection? Greed is the root of evil.The three young men, who first show their lack of restraint or self-discipline by being drunk early in the morning and then make the mistake of going in search of Death (rather like looking for trouble), quickly lose their loyalty to one another when they find gold (in the place where a mysterious old man told them they would find Death) and are then separated. Two plots to kill one, t he one contrive o kill the two, and all three find what they initially went looking for. 6. A foil is a character that provides a striking contrast to other characters.In what way does the old man serve as a foil to the three rioters? He is a foil to the rioters in that he represents the wisdom of old age. Unlike the rioters, the old man is calm, sober, and respectful; he understands that human beings have no control over death. 7. Cox Irony Example(s) from â€Å"The Pardoner's Tale 1 . Verbal irony occurs when someone states one thing and means another. The Pardoner makes a speech at the end of the selection, when he tries to sell organizers; by his earlier admission, he doesn't believe in the church's teachings about sin, forgiveness, and damnation. . Situational irony is a contrast between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. The rioters expect to find Death under the tree; instead they find gold, which leads to their death. 3. In dramatic irony, the readers kno w more than the characters do. The reader is aware that the older rioters have conspired against the youngest. 9. During the mid-14th century, the Black Death – a massive epidemic of the bubonic plague – swept through Asia and Europe. In Europe alone, one-quarter of the population died.In what way might these circumstances have made people vulnerable to the tricks of the Pardoner and other unscrupulous clergymen? Christians would have feared dying without forgiveness for their sins, as doing so would have meant eternal damnation. The outbreak of the plague would have led many to seek forgiveness in the form of indulgences. They might also have looked to the supposed power of his relics to keep them healthy. Vocabulary in Context 1. False 2. True 3. True Vocabulary Strategy 1. Debonair 3. Piquant 4. Nuance 5. Echelon Vocabulary Study 1. Meting: parley 2. Greed : Avarice .Criticized: Castigated 1. Critique 2. Encore 3. Genre 4. Souvenirs 5. Repartee 6. Most African Ameri can males have brunette hair 7. The finale to the festivals was a ground display of fireworks 8. Women often use rouge cosmetics to color their checks and lips. Vocabulary Practice 1. Parley 2. Avarice 3. Castigate 4. Avarice 5. Parley 6. Castigate 7. The Pardoner's tale is a satire of a man who preaches to people about the evils of money, claiming ‘The love of money is the root of evil. ‘ This phrase was taken directly out of the Bible. In effect, the Pardoner is guilty of his own avarice actions, making

Facts, Geography About the West African Nation of Ghana

Facts, Geography About the West African Nation of Ghana Ghana is a country located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea. The country is known for being the second largest producer of cocoa in the world as well as its incredible ethnic diversity. Ghana currently has more than 100 different ethnic groups in its population of just over 24 million. History of Ghana Ghanas history prior to the 15th century is concentrated primarily on oral traditions. However, it is believed that people may have inhabited what is present-day Ghana from about 1500 BCE. European contact with Ghana began in 1470. In 1482, the Portuguese built a trading settlement there. Shortly thereafter for three centuries, the Portuguese, English, Dutch, Danes, and Germans all controlled different parts of the coast. In 1821, the British took control of all of the trading posts located on the Gold Coast. From 1826 to 1900, the British then fought battles against the native Ashanti and in 1902, the British defeated them and claimed the northern part of todays Ghana. In 1957, after a plebiscite in 1956, the United Nations determined that the territory of Ghana would become independent and combined with another British territory, British Togoland, when the entire Gold Coast became independent. On March 6, 1957, Ghana became independent after the British gave up control of the Gold Coast and the Ashanti, the Northern Territories Protectorate and British Togoland. Ghana was then taken as the legal name for the Gold Coast after it was combined with British Togoland in that year. Following its independence, Ghana underwent several reorganizations that caused the country to be divided into 10 different regions. Kwame Nkrumah was the first prime minister and president of modern Ghana and he had goals of unifying Africa as well as freedom and justice and equality in education for all. His government, however, was overthrown in 1966. Instability was then a major part of Ghanas government from 1966 to 1981, as several government overthrows occurred. In 1981, Ghanas constitution was suspended and political parties were banned. This later caused the countrys economy to decline and many people from Ghana migrated to other countries.By 1992, a new constitution was adopted, the government began to regain stability, and the economy started to improve. Today, Ghanas government is relatively stable and its economy is growing. Government of Ghana Ghanas government today is considered a constitutional democracy with an executive branch made up of a chief of state and a head of government filled by the same person. The legislative branch is a unicameral Parliament while its judicial branch is made up of the Supreme Court. Ghana is also still divided into 10 regions for local administration: Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra, Northern, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, and Western. Economics and Land Use in Ghana Ghana currently has one of the strongest economies of West Africas countries due to its richness of natural resources. These include gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, hydropower, petroleum, silver, salt, and limestone. However, Ghana remains dependent on international and technical assistance for its continued growth. The country also has an agriculture market that produces things like cocoa, rice, and peanuts, while its industries are focused on mining, lumber, food processing, and light manufacturing. Geography and Climate of Ghana Ghanas topography consists mainly of low plains but its south-central area does have a small plateau. Ghana is also home to Lake Volta, the worlds largest artificial lake. Because Ghana is only a few degrees north of the Equator, its climate is considered tropical. It has a wet and dry season but it is mainly warm and dry in the southeast, hot and humid in the southwest and hot and dry in the north. More Facts About Ghana Capital: AccraBordering Countries: Burkina Faso, Cote dIvoire, TogoLand Area: 92,098 square miles (238,533 sq km)Coastline: 335 miles (539 km)Highest Point: Mount Afadjato at 2,887 feet (880 m)Ghana has 47 local languages but English is its official language.Association football or soccer is the most popular sport in Ghana and the country regularly participates in the World Cup.Ghanas life expectancy is 59 years for males and 60 years for females. References CIA - The World Factbook - Ghana. Central Intelligence Agency, May 2010.ï » ¿Ghana. United States Department of State, March 2010.Ghana: History, Geography, Government, and Culture. Infoplease.

Privateers in the War of 1812

Privateers in the War of 1812 Privateers were captains of merchant ships legally sanctioned to attack and capture ships of enemy nations. American privateers had played a useful role in the American Revolution, attacking British ships. And when the United States Constitution was drafted it contained a provision for the federal government to authorize privateers. In the War of 1812, American privateers played a major role, as armed merchant ships sailing from American ports attacked, seized, or destroyed a great many British merchant ships. The American privateers actually did much more damage to British shipping than the U.S. Navy, which was greatly outnumbered and outgunned by Britains Royal Navy. Some American privateer captains became heroes during the War of 1812, and their exploits were celebrated in American newspapers.   Privateers sailing from Baltimore, Maryland were especially aggravating to the British. London newspapers denounced Baltimore as a nest of pirates. The most significant of the Baltimore privateers was Joshua Barney, a naval hero of the Revolutionary War who volunteered to serve in the summer of 1812 and was commissioned as a privateer by President James Madison. Barney was immediately successful at raiding British ships on the open ocean and received press attention. The Columbian, a New York City newspaper, reported on the results of one of his raiding voyages in the issue of August 25, 1812: Arrived at Boston the English brig William, from Bristol (England) for St. Johns, with 150 tons of coal, ; a prize to the privateer Rossie, commodore Barney, who had also captured and destroyed 11 other British vessels, and captured the ship Kitty from Glasgow, of 400 tons and ordered her for the first port. The British naval and land attack on Baltimore in September 1814 was, at least in part, intended to punish the city for its connection to privateers. Following the burning of Washington, D.C., British plans to burn Baltimore were thwarted, and the American defense of the city was immortalized by Francis Scott Key, an eyewitness, in The Star-Spangled Banner. History of Privateers By the dawn of the 19th century, the history of privateering stretched back at least 500 years. The major European powers had all employed privateers to prey upon the shipping of enemies in various conflicts. The official commissions which governments gave to authorize ships to operate as privateers were generally known as letters of marque. During the American Revolution, state governments, as well as the Continental Congress, issued letters of marque to authorize privateers to seize British merchant ships. And British privateers likewise preyed upon American ships. In the late 1700s, ships of the East India Company sailing in the Indian Ocean were known to have been issued letters of marque and preyed upon French vessels. And during the Napoleonic Wars, the French government issued letters of marque to ships, sometimes manned by American crews, which preyed upon British shipping. Constitutional Basis for Letters of Marque The use of privateers was considered an important, if not essential, part of naval warfare in the late 1700s when the United States Constitution was written. And the legal basis for privateers was included in the Constitution, in Article I, Section 8. That section, which includes a lengthy list of Congressional powers, includes: To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water. The use of letters of marque was specifically mentioned in the Declaration of War signed by President James Madison and dated June 18, 1812: Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That war be and is hereby declared to exist between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the dependencies thereof, and the United States of America and their territories; and the President of the United States is hereby authorized to use the whole land and naval force of the United States, to carry the same into effect, and to issue private armed vessels of the United States commissions or letters of marque and general reprisal, in such form as he shall think proper, and under the seal of the United States, against the vessels, goods, and effects of the government of the said United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the subjects thereof. Recognizing the importance of privateers, President Madison personally signed each commission. Anyone seeking a commission had to apply to the secretary of state and submit information about the ship and its crew. The official paperwork, the letter of marque, was extremely important. If a ship was captured on the high seas by an enemy ship and could produce an official commission, it would be treated as a combatant vessel and the crew would be treated as prisoners of war. Without the letter of marque, the crew could be treated as ordinary pirates and hanged.

Ancient Roman Charioteers in the Roman Myths Essay

Ancient Roman Charioteers in the Roman Myths - Essay Example The sources reveal that most Roman charioteers died at a young age, thus implying the danger of such a career. For example, one driver for the Blue faction in around AD 68 died at the age of 25 (ILS 5284). Crescent, the driver for the Blue faction in around Ad 115-124 died at 22 years old (ILS 5285). Moreover, Fuscus, a driver for the Greens, died in around AD 35 at the age of 24 (ILD 5278). In the same way, Marcus Aurelius Polynices died at 29 and his brother Marcus Aurelius Mollicius Tatianus died at 20 (ILS 5286). All of these documented accounts of charioteers were never able to live past the age of 29. In fact, although some of the ancient Roman charioteers may have survived the race past the age of 30, charting as a career still posed as a great danger to many charioteers considering that there was always the possibility that one’s life would end early. The sources imply that the impulse to win and to keep racing was great despite the danger because of the promise of reward and recognition, thus further endangering one’s life in the seemingly endless pursuit of such a career. The promise and temptation of the rewards accorded to the best charioteers must have been a continuous source of inspiration for many young charioteers who sought fame, fortune and recognition. For example, the driver for the Blue faction in around AD 68 received honors 354 times (ILS 5284). Glabrio, in around AD 115-124, received prizes of 1,558,346 sesterces (ILS 5285). In addition, Marcus Aurelius Polynices won the 40,000-sesterces prize 3 times, the 30,000-sesterces prize 26 times, and the pure prize 11 times (ILS 5286). Lacerta of the Reds also made as much money as to finance 100 lawyers to leave his sons (ILS 5287). Publius Aelius Gutta Calpurnianus, also won numerous awards, with the greatest at 50,000 sesterces once, 40,000 sesterces 9 times, an d 30,000 sesterces 17 times (ILS 5288). Such prices have been so great and so there was always the  drive in the charioteers to achieve these rewards. Moreover, erected monuments and speeches to glorify the victors even in their deaths actually served as an inspiration to many charioteers to keep on with their careers.  

Describe the economic background of British Airways. Identify three Essay

Describe the economic background of British Airways. Identify three probelms and propose three solutions - Essay Example it would be to exhibit the proclamations of this corporation, we must first understand British Airways’ true economic past and current situation that we may assess any apparent failures and successes. British Airways has, in its years of operation, has continued its vocation with responsible and efficient provided services. In the suspect economy the international aviation market now possesses, it is almost ridiculous to specifically relate past economic standings to those of today, for today’s market differs even from yesterdays, ad infinitum. However, in keep this notion, we may view British Airways’ past economic conditions in comparison to the company’s internal and separate record. To be most efficient, we view the status of the company from the year 96 to present; keeping in mind, of course, how absolute the success of this business has been. With it’s highly regarded standing as one, if not the only, leading carrier in the UK, British Airways has carried millions of passengers out of 550 airports including its main station which is the largest international airport in the world; Heathrow. The company has multiple industry partners including franchise partner GB Airways, British Mediterranean, Sun Air and Comair, and â€Å"oneworld† partners Iberia, Qantas, Finnair, American Airlines, Aer Lingus and Cathay Pacific Airways. UNICEF, British Airways’ United Nations Children’s Fund, commenced in April 1994 and has raised funds to support many a good cause; the most recent development in the effort being the launch of the â€Å"Change for Good† programme which offers funds raised to aid needy children across the world. In 2005 alone, British Airways received 34 Awards in various months for its services and overall business standards. Among them: â€Å"Global 100 Most Sustainable Corporation s,† given by Corporate Knights Inc at the World Economic Forum in February; Best International Airline and Best Domestic Airline, given by the Association of

Exam 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Exam 5 - Essay Example Filing a complaint is the first step in every case including the sexual assault one. In order for the case to proceed to trial, the victim must be deemed credible when reporting of the sexual assault. The credibility will go ahead and assist when it comes to seeking testimony. Evidence even a little strengthens the credibility of the victim. If the victim is deemed credible, then the case will go to trial and given priority, if not, it will be rejected at this stage (Chancellor, 2012). When victims report of sexual assault to a police station, they record official statements. During trial, the victim is asked to narrate the events following the sexual assault and this is also recorded. The narration of the story and recording may be carried out several times and then all these official documents are compared for consistency. If the prosecutor finds any inconsistencies or discrepancies in these statements, then this is a good reason to reject the sexual assault case by first discrediting the allegations and then filing for the case to be thrown aside. The victim must therefore ensure that they stick to the details of the first statement recorded at the police station. If the victim passes this stage successfully and the statements in all the official documents match, then the case moves on to prosecution through by calling witnesses and presenting evidence of the sexual assault. In every different kind of sexual assault, there are certain behaviors that accompany them and which are known by the prosecutor. During examination or cross examination of the victim in court, some of these behaviors (depending on the type of sexual assault) are expected to be provided Failure to do this or divert from the â€Å"typified behavior of the assault† leads to discrediting of the statement and evidence and the whole case based in credibility issues. Based on the three methods based above, the one thing which is common in all the three and which is what really leads to the

Dance In The Curriculum Drama Essay

Dance In The Curriculum Drama Essay Dance as a discipline is marginalised in academic discourse as an ephemeral, performance-focused subject, its power articulated through the body. In UK schools it is a physical subject with an aesthetic gloss, languishing at the bottom of the academic hierarchy, conceptualised as art but located within physical education in the national curriculum (Downing et al, 2003; Brehoney, 2005). Placing additional emphasis on performance at A level also undermines the development of dance studies more widely within a subject hierarchy that places literacy, rather than embodiment, as a key factor of high-status knowledge. Beyond the confines of the dance curriculum, these changes illuminate Foucaults assertions that power and knowledge are interconnected and that power produces knowledge (1979, 1980b). He outlined three core processes for exerting disciplinary power: observation, examination and normalising judgement. Benthams Panopticon, a prison with cells constructed around a central tower, demonstrates how discipline and control can be transferred to the prisoners themselves. The inmates are always potentially visible to the guards and so must behave at all times as if they are being watched. They are their own guards, controlled by the gaze: Just a gaze. An inspecting gaze which each individual under its weight will end by interiorizing to the point that he is his own overseer, each individual thus exercising this surveillance over, and against, himself. A superb formula: power exercised continuously and for what turns out to be minimal cost (Foucault, 1980b, p. 155). Foucaults second disciplinar y technology, normalisation, is the way in which behaviour can be aligned with societys standards, to correct what is seen as deviant. The third, examination, is the combination of the other two and exemplifies power/knowledge as it both establishes the truth and controls behaviour. This article illustrates how these processes work in the context of dance in education. Taking into account Foucaults suggestion that the traditional way of describing power in negative terms as something that excludes or represses should stop, that it is the productive aspect of power that creates reality, the article explores how dance in education might be seen as both literate and a physical activity suitable for anyone, and thus to have more power in the twenty-first-century curriculum. Yet dance is more than just performance: to dismiss it as purely bodies in action is to ignore not only the language of its own structural conventions but also the language in which it might be recorded. Currently there is little indication in school that dance, like music, has its own complex systems of notation. The current discourse of dance in education has normalised it as an illiterate art form and the removal of the notation component at A level has entrenched that perception. Furthermore, the idea that dance studies is solely about beautiful bodies in motion, the exclusive pursuit of slender, flexible females, is an unhelpful blueprint at a time when there is a need to encourage more physical activity to combat rising levels of childhood obesity. So if students are not to self-exclude from dance whether on grounds of perceived body type, gender or lack of academic currency, then there needs to be a more inclusive, valued and thus more powerful form of the subject in the curriculum. Dance in the Curriculum: an overview Dance developed as a part of public education in the UK during the 1880s when Swedish educator Martina Bergman Osterberg brought Lings physical education ideas to London. Physical training was introduced in 1909 into what were then called elementary schools to improve fitness levels and encourage discipline and cooperation in young men. The dance aspect was perceived as an exclusively female pursuit (Brinson, 1991). Western dance tradition is still strongly associated with the female; as Ferdun points out, the term dance is usually associated with girls and feminine qualities by a significant portion of the dominant culture. Labelling dance as female prevents it from functioning fully as an educational medium. It limits participation by anyone, male or female, who does not want to be associated with stereotyped gender images and practices (Ferdun, 1994, p. 46). Whilst dance still remains a part of the PE curriculum, McFee (2004) argues for the distinctive nature of dance as an artistic activity, for its value in the curriculum within an education system that demands accountability. He adopts a personal enquiry view of education which stresses the importance of personal development. Drawing on the work of Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) and David Best (1991), he argues that dance is a suitable medium for such an educational endeavour. However, whilst for McFee dance should be treated as an artistic activity that has intrinsic value, the notion of dance being understood in such a way as to make it accountable is at the heart of his text. His emphasis on accountability resonates with arguments around high-status knowledge and with the need for robust assessment in public examinations. Dance can be assessed as a sub-section of physical education and is also available as a separate subject at GCSE (usually taken age 16 at the end of compulsory education) and at GCE A level (advanced-level subjects, taken two years later, which usually form the basis of university entrance). Articulating the Power of Dance: Ideology into Practice Dance requires the development of physical skills just as other sporting activities do, but differs in that technical skill is not the end in itself. That skill must be used to create meaning; its main concern is aesthetic experience. Unsurprisingly, as McFee (2004) points out, many PE teachers have little interest in teaching dance. Not only does it require an understanding of dance technique if it is to embrace masterworks that is, known works in current repertory but it also has an aesthetic aspect that makes it distinctive. Indeed, when combined with the particularly female orientation of dance, it seems somewhat ironic to place it within a department that is culturally perceived as masculine and essentially in opposition. But in spite of the implication that to put dance with PE is to fail to emphasise the subjects aesthetic qualities, the dance as art model has become the predominant way of studying it. And this is a central problem for dance in education: the aesthetic dimension inherent in dance as an art form and expected by the national curriculum, at GCSE and at A level, leads to this subject having no obvious department in which to sit. All dance examination syllabi in school reflect the dance as art model. As well as having traditional written aspects, GCSE and A level have a practical component, carrying 70% and 55% of the total marks respectively (AQA, 2009). When first examined in 1986, the A-level syllabus required candidates to show ability to choreograph; to perform; to be able to read and use notation; to show knowledge of the constituent form and features of dances and their historical and social contexts; and, finally, to be able to interpret and evaluate dances (University of London Schools Examination Board, 1986). Changes to the syllabus in 2008 resulted in dropping the notation requirement; they also streamlined the choreographic tasks and placed an added emphasis on health and safety in training and performance. The specification also removed the technical study and instead assesses technical competence through the solo choreography task. The power of the dance itself is examined through students ability to analyse the choreographic structure of masterworks in essay form and to use defined compositional structures in their own choreography. It is also assessed through their ability to perform. The proportion of marks allocated for the practical components at both GCSE and A level reflects the need not only to understand dance in theory but also to use that knowledge in practice. It also points to the centrality of the body as the instrument through which the power of dance is articulated and made accountable through assessment. But examination is, in Foucaults terms, under the power of the gaze. The gaze, whether on the dance itself or on the wider notion of dance studies in the academic hierarchy, influences what is seen, what is valued, what is deemed to have power. It influences the kind of inspection itself. If literacy is valued in the academy, then how might dance be written, read, considered and interiorised under its inspecting gaze? Dance is a language with its own systems expressed through choreography and performance. The word choreography itself derives from the Greek, choreia, meaning choral dance, and graphia, meaning writing. But if, as Cohan states, dance speaks in a very special language, both to the doer and the watcher. It speaks of things read between the lines, things that are impossible to put into words (Cohan, 1986, p.10), how can school students articulate those impossible qualities, have the power to express them in a way that is accountable, to use McFees (2004) term? Not just toread and write about dance, but to read and write dance itself? Foster states: Literacy in dance begins with seeing, hearing and feeling how the body moves (1986, p. 58). From the high culture of classical ballet to the nineties revival of Lindy Hop, from contemporary technique to street dance, the dance reader must recognise the qualities of those movements, consider their features, remember and identify patterns. The syllabus, whether at GCSE or A level, refers to constituent features and compositional devices that should be understood, and later read in the masterworks studied for the latter. These include movement components (action content, dynamics and spatial arrangement); dancers (numbers, gender, physique, role); physical and aural setting; and the development of dance ideas. Choreographic devices such as motif development, variation and transition are also required. The cultural perspective Reading dance is not only about its internal structure, it is also about its place within culture: it is complex. The reader must understand the choreographic codes and conventions that give the dance its significance (Foster, 1986, p. 59). This complexity is reflected in the way choreography is examined, for example, at A level. The written papers ask both for discussion of the component features of a dance, but also to demonstrate how the dance relates to its cultural context. In other words, the papers ask the candidate to be able to read the dance in terms of form and context for example, to understand not only how Christopher Bruce creates the power of Ghost Dances (1981) through technical means, but why such a powerful and searing indictment of political oppression, the disappeared of Pinochets Chile, was significant. The practical examination calls for the student to write dance, to compose both solo and group choreography. The compositional components described above are to be used in this writing. But as Adshead (1986) points out, dance composition, where the elements of dance are put together in a recognisable construction, is only the beginning of choreography. Understanding the crafting of the piece only takes us so far and while it might in principle be the aspect of choreography most understood, dances are imaginative constructions designed to do far more than string steps together in a neat and tidy way, or even in an untidy conglomeration of movements (Adshead, 1986, p. 20). The power of choreography is not just about using form correctly, it is about creating meaning and its effective communication to the audience. Dance in education, then, as examined at GCSE and A level, requires students to read dance through understanding its own language of compositional devices, making reference to the cultural context of the practitioners and masterworks studied. There is also the requirement to write dance using those same compositional structures, and the solo must reflect the characteristics of a specific practitioner. Having envisioned and created meaningful artistic relationships derived from knowledge about dance, the student must have the technical skill to realise them in practice. Those qualities have to be conveyed to the observer through the dancers instrument, the body. Young observed that it is power, not knowledge, that counts in education (Young, 2008, p. 94). And power can be constructed as the power of Foucaults gaze (Foucault, 1980b). Dance knowledge encapsulated in its internal concepts of literacy may not have status in the eyes of those who have the power to create the curriculum and endorse its values; it has little power as academic currency. Dance as articulated through the body is similarly problematic: Shilling (2004) develops Bourdieus conception of the body as physical capital which needs to be converted into other forms in order to have value. But according to Foucault, the body itself has a complex relationship with power. As former ballerina Jennifer Jackson notes, The focus on the body, as against the person who dances, links standards of perfection to the instrument of the dance rather than the dancer or the dancing itself (Jackson, 2005, p. 32). Dance in education does not immediately appear to share this professional obsession with technical perfection either in the national curriculum or at GCSE and A level. Syllabus documents make no reference to technical excellence; no statements are given to indicate standards by comparison to technical qualifications. The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA) mark scheme for the 2009-10 choreographic section of the GCSE level paper which asks candidates to show appropriate and sensitive use of dancers skills and attributes to communicate the dance idea (AQA, 2009, p. 4), and my discussions with practical examiners reiterate the notion that dancers are used to illustrate the choreography, that their performance is not assessed, for a choreographers skill is, in part, to use what abilities the dancers have. In this view, the body is pushed aside, as if dance can simply be reduced to representation, not embodiment. But this is disingenuous: the power of dance is inevitably mediated through the body and the body cannot be removed from that representation, leaving embodiment and representation in irresolvable tension. A professional choreographer can indeed tailor the dance to the strengths of the performers, but those dancers will already be in possession of the docile body created through years of technique classes. School-level student choreographers creating dances for examination have to work with dancers who might but equally might not have technical skill. And so the technical skills of the dancers available to the candidates will affect both their choice of steps and the aesthetics of the performance. As one dance teacher colleague observed, I am sure you could look at a dance performed by two different candidates and think that one was better because you are more impressed by the performance of one because she was a better dancer, or slimmer, or more elegant Even with the best intentions, it is very difficult to remove the effect caused by a poor performance and a body that does not conform to normalised expectations because the two are so inextricably linked. And so the self-correction of the docile body is not limited to technical excellence but is also affected by the expected body shape, even at school level. Foucault describes the ideal body of the soldier, the muscular physique and bearing that replaces the peasant. In dance, as in society, there is an ideal body myth, the normalised body constructed as the aesthetic standard, the object of the observers gaze. Following Foucault, Green (2002) describes the ideal body of the female dancer as seen by her student participants, the long legs, the flexible, skinny body with no curves, thin face, long hair. An ideal, constantly striven for, self-policed, light as a feather. Never eat sweets (Green, 2002, p. 135), emphasising the sentiments of students and teacher referred to above. The self in the mirror is not checked just for technical accuracy but for any excess fat. The skinny dancer, existing on caffeine and cigarettes, is part of the dancing myth, if struggled against in reality. But the importance of indeed obsession with maintaining the perfect dancing body can lead to a range of eating disorders (Thomas, 1995). Perhaps addressing this concern might be one of the benefits referred to in the restructured GCSE specification that is, an understanding of health and safety in dance. Additionally, seeking to question the objectification of the body can result in a deeper understanding of the nature of dance and of its role in society (Shapiro, 1998, p. 10). The male professional dancers body is more contested, especially within the essentially patriarchal structures of ballet. In the nineteenth century he was caught between two competing discourses: if he looked muscular, strong and vigorous, he appeared too contrasting to the sylphlike ballerina who took the central role. But if he looked too ethereal and aesthetic, anxiety was generated in the theatre-going public through perceived homosexual overtones, a link that still persists whatever the reality. Male dancers in the contemporary idiom are perceived as more masculine than their classical counterparts, in part emphasised through the differences in classical and contemporary technique and choreographic principles, yet doubts regarding sexual orientation still remain in popular thought (Burt, 2007). The film Billy Elliot, in which Billy struggles to be permitted to dance, illustrates this perfectly: boys should play football or learn boxing dancing is for girls. What is more, in theatrical dance, the body is on view and most frequently a female body and with it historically, a link with moral laxity. The female body has long been regarded as a source of discord and danger to the patriarchal order, through distraction from knowledge, seduction away from God, capitulation to sexual desire, violence or aggression, failure of will, even death (Bordo, 1993, p. 5). Churches preached against social dance on grounds of immorality in the close physical proximity of male and female bodies, whether it was the introduction of the waltz in Victorian England or the perceived depravity of the tango and Charleston in the 1920s (Brinson, 1991). The theatre itself was the domain of women of questionable morals. Foucault saw the body to be central in the operationalising of power. Since the female body is repressed in a patriarchal culture and cultural representations of it (Fraser Bartky, 1992) that is, it is seen as the other to be controlled by the male, the relationship between dance and gender is influential in articulating the power of dance. The female body can be seen in terms of competing discourses and social control. If the power of dance must be expressed through the body, and that body is female (or if male, then with potentially homosexual overtones), then the dance expresses not power but subservience within that patriarchal hierarchy. And in the school curriculum, the body is similarly positioned and manipulated, its realities hidden (Oliver Lalik, 2001). Bakhtin (1968) argued that these impure meanings around embodiment could be overturned. Taking the world of medieval and Renaissance carnival as depicted in Rabelais novels, he showed how the worldview was upturned, where usual power structures were inverted and the boundaries between what was considered pure or profane could be crossed. The body image itself moved to a celebration of the grotesque but at its extreme it never presents an individual body; the image consists of orifices and convexities that present another, newly conceived body. It is a point of transition in a life eternally renewed, the inexhaustible vessel of death and conception (Bakhtin, 1968/1984, p. 318). But carnival is transitory: participants can only be temporarily free of Foucaults disciplinary technologies. In professional dance, the power of the choreography is essentially expressed through performance, and outside a carnival world view the lithe, trained dancer is considered uniquely able to interpret the choreographers ideas with the docile body. Dance and the Curriculum 2: Notating Dance But if in school the choreography is merely to be illuminated by the performer, then perhaps an alternative way of dealing with the potential interference from the use of (inadequately) docile bodies would be to ask dance candidates to write down their intentions, to allow the power of their choreographic choices to be examined in isolation from the power of the performing body. The question then arises of how this might be achieved in a curriculum that does not acknowledge the existence of dance notation. There are two main systems of notating dance, Labanotation and Benesh. Labanotation, devised by the influential dance figure Rudolf Laban, was published in 1928 and is used to record movement across a range of dance styles. Without notation, there is little chance of being able to accurately reproduce the movements; one can only know about the dance and its role within that particular culture. In spite of its availability, notation was used very little, with a resultant lack of documented dance scores (Redfern, 2007) although the number of scores is now gradually increasing. In the United States, for example, the Dance Notation Bureau, located at the University of Ohio, uses Labanotation to create a record of dance works, so that dance scores can be accessed and used in the same way as music scores. Other institutions in Europe and elsewhere are similarly collating notated dance works. These works are then available for interpretation, as are other art forms. And, as Redfern (2007) points out, increasing the number of interpretations of an art work increases its stature; the power of the dance can be enhanced by inviting different readings of its texts. As well as creating records of dance, notation use can also have learning-outcome implications. Goodmans (1976) theory of notation suggests that the created score defines a body of knowledge. Warburton (2000) goes on to argue that trying to express that knowledge verbally can be counterproductive because of what he refers to as the ambiguity and redundancy of spoken language. He illustrates this by explaining how the verbal description to glide for a ballet step called a glissade sets up expectations of the kind of movement to be completed that gliding overlaps the meanings of travelling and leaping moreover, to tell the dancer to perform a travelling-leaping-action-that-skims-across-the-floor permits a variety of interpretations (Warburton, 2000, p. 195). The anecdote he tells goes on to explore the problems of description and how one particular ballet mistress resolved this by demanding repetition until he performed the step properly the power of the dance expressed through the body, not through words. But although a dance step is a bodily experience, rarely conceptualised in terms of its component parts, notation, he asserts, might provide the means for this conceptualisation in a way that language cannot. He concludes that if the goal of dance education is to help dancers increase their abilities to use dance concepts, to read, write, and dance dance, then notation-use is a good tool for doing so (Warburton, 2000, p. 210), since it enables movement, concept and notation to be linked, which improves learning. Dance notation has never been a requirement for access to dance courses, whether at degree level or for professional training. Few institutions offered the particular AQA specification in which it appeared, and so many potential students would have been unable to study it. It is available for study in professional training courses at specialist dance schools and also features in some dance degree courses as an option. But at school level, the situation is rather different. From its inception in 1986 until restructured and examined for the first time in its new format in 2009, notation was a part of A-level dance, both for conveying the technical study to the teachers and their students and also as a separate test. Originally, according to one examiner, it was included at A level, for mainly cultural reasons. Dance has been regarded as an illiterate art for too long. There are few scripts or records of materials, so dance is seen as a time-based art, disadvantaged in comparison with drama or music. We wanted to help bring it into line with the other arts (Ridley, 1992, p. 37). Literacy, as used here, can be defined by the ability to read and write dance scores using either Benesh or Labanotation. At that time, the latter was the dominant choice of candidates; later examiners reports note the ability of students in both forms (AQA, 2008). The first and rather indirect test of notation skills at A level was through sending the compulsory technical dance study to centres in notated form. However, unless the students were extremely confident with notation, above the standard required for the exam itself, they were unable to read the complex scores themselves and thus were reliant on their teachers for their choice. This had important repercussions. Perhaps the first classical study might be slow, a piece of adage requiring balance, control and strength, whilst the second might emphasise speed, elevation and intricacy, a piece of allegro. Dancers tend to be more comfortable, and thus more competent, in one rather than the other. If the teacher decided to teach both studies then candidates would be able to choose their preferred option; if not, then some students would have to learn, perform and be assessed on a technical study which did not reflect their best performing ability. One solution was the option to buy video recordings from the National Resource Centre for Dance at the University of Surrey. However, this raised a further problem: any performance is inevitably an interpretation of the notation, not the definitive answer. The Resource Centre attempted to minimise this by offering a male and a female interpretation of each piece, but the essential problem remained. Students therefore copied the interpretation when perhaps they could have offered an equally valid, or possibly even better, interpretation from the score itself. The power of the dance as notated and to be interpreted was subsumed into copied technical performance. The specific notation component was also examined practically: students were tested in groups of six, each candidate having a different dance score. They were given sixteen bars of their chosen notation (either Benesh or Labanotation) to decode and perform. The bars were repeated in performance, to create a thirty-two-bar sequence. Thirty minutes were given in which the notation not only had to be understood but also memorised, then fitted to music and a creditable performance rendered which was itself graded. Candidates had to cope with distraction as well as having to race against the clock: the music was played periodically during the thirty minutes, which was potentially distracting if, at that moment, the individual was not ready to put the steps to music but was perhaps decoding a specific section. The memorisation aspect also meant that whilst a candidate might be able to read the notation and perform it with score in hand, marks would be lost if they could not perform it accurately without the score. If notation is a tool of dance, a way of recording movement, then memorisation and performance can hardly be a fair test of the ability to read it. One could read a poem for a test, but just because those lines were not remembered accurately would not be a reason to assume the person could not read. This memorisation aspect shifted the emphasis from reading the notation to one of demonstrating that understanding by way of perfected performance. The task was not a straightforward test of notation literacy but rather one of memorisation demonstrated through bodily skill. The power of dance was once again articulated through the performing body. Nevertheless, successive examiners reports throughout this period indicated the increasing familiarity of students with notated scores, and hence an increasing ability to cope with them. For example, in 2008, the report noted: As stated in previous years, some candidates are to be congratulated on their achievements. It was pleasing to see a number of candidates dance the whole 32-bar score and gain high marks in this component of the Unit 5 examination. This continues to be a positive progression over the past couple of years, indicating an increasing confidence in preparing reconstruction skills (AQA, 2008, p. 4). Yet the restructured 2009 A level removed the examined notation component completely. AQA suggested a summary of benefits of the new syllabus, which included encouraging critical engagement with dance as an art form, providing a suitable foundation for pursuing dance in higher education, providing experience of choreography and performance, and, finally, encouraging a hea lthy lifestyle (AQA, 2008). However, according to the National Dance Teachers Association (NTDA), the notation component was dropped because AQA was concerned about the ability of teachers to deal with this aspect of the course. Too few teachers were able to teach notation to a high enough standard and examiners had seen too many crying candidates attempting the notation part of unit five. It seems that we as teachers have failed to meet the standards required to deliver this part of the course successfully (NDTA, 2008, p. 13). Those teachers trained to use the system acknowledged the difficulties it posed, but nevertheless the outcome can only be seen as a retrograde step. Rather than calling for an improvement in teaching standards, this significant aspect of dance scholarship was dropped. The gaze of the literate hierarchy was rejected, not interiorised. So whilst schoolchildren may routinely be expected to understand that music has its own form of language that is, music notation there is no such expectation for dance; dance in schools is taught as if it were an illiterate art form that is, as if its notation does not exist. An unfortunate effect of this is, as Redfern (2007) points out, that a lack of interest in dance scores is perhaps what makes for, or at least reinforces, the tendency to concentrate on performance rather than the work; and this absence of a tradition of studying a dance script in the way that it is imperative for musicians or actors to study their scores or texts means that relatively little has been expected or demanded of the dancer in respect of interpretational ability (Redfern, 2007, p. 197). Notation is thus important for the development of dance studies. It allows dance works to be recorded and studied other than during the performance itself, giving dance a language equivalent to music. It can also enhance learning. But reading and interpreting through notated scores (however unskilled) is no longer a possibility at school level, and whilst writing scores was expected only at a very basic level, this too has gone. In addition, complex and analytical notation gives academic weight to a subject so often seen as unsuitable for serious study. It is also assessable in a way in which the more ephemeral aspects of the subject are not. The absence of notation at A level cannot help but reinforce